International Consultative Conference on School
Education
in relation with Freedom of Religion and Belief Tolerance and Non-discrimination
(Madrid, 23-25 November 2001)

Office of the High Commisioner for Human Rights
U
nited Nations

The role of religious education
in the pursuit of tolerance and non-discrimination

Study prepared under the guidance of Prof. Abdelfattah Amor,
Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights
on the question of religious intolerance

Comments to replies received from Governments

Introduction

The present study was drafted based on replies received from 77 States to a questionnaire on the contents of school curricula and manuals in the field of education in religion and conviction. Its aim is, on the one hand, to make an assessment of the current situation and, on the other hand, to try to set up a strategy.

The assessment focuses on the current state of religious education, particularly in connection with tolerance and non-discrimination based on religion or conviction and, more in general, with human rights, both at the primary and the secondary-school levels.

The strategy is based upon the observations received by the different counterparts working on education, particularly States, on the role that the school could play world-wide in order to contribute effectively to contrast all forms of intolerance and discrimination based on religion and conviction, and so that self-representation and representation of the others in the field of religion and conviction help foster the idea that "the others" are "us". Also, such a strategy should highlight the fact that, besides all specificities, human rights are based on the common denominator of human dignity and, as such, cannot be limited to the expression of those specificities, or to their simple juxtaposition, nor can they be translated in terms of reservation or exclusion.

1. The meaning of education

On 19 November 1974, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), in its recommendation on education for international understanding, co-operation and peace and education relating to human rights and fundamental freedoms, adopted by its General Conference, defined education as implying "the entire process of social life by means of which individuals and social groups learn to develop consciously within, and for the benefit of, the national and international communities, the whole of their personal capacities, attitudes, aptitudes and knowledge. This process is not limited to any specific activities".

2. The meaning of human rights education

In accordance with relevant provisions of international human rights instruments, and for the purposes of the United Nations Decade for Human Rights Education proclaimed by the General Assembly in December 1994, human rights education has been defined as training, dissemination and information efforts aimed at the building of a universal culture of human rights through the imparting of knowledge and skills and the moulding of attitudes, which are directed towards:

  • the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms;
  • the full development of the human personality and the sense of its dignity;
  • the promotion of understanding, tolerance, gender equality and friendship among all nations, indigenous peoples and racial, national, ethnic, religious and linguistic groups;
  • the enabling of all persons to participate effectively in a free society;
  • the furtherance of the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.

3. The meaning of religious education

Religious education should be conceived as a tool to transmit knowledge and values pertaining to all religious trends, in an inclusive way, so that individuals realize their being part of the same community and learn to create their own identity in harmony with identities different from their own. As such, religious education radically differs from catechism or theology, defined as the formal study of the nature of God and of the foundations of religious belief, and contributes to the wider framework of education as defined in international standards.

4. Survey on education for a preventive strategy

As indicated in the successive reports of the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief to the Commission on Human Rights and to the General Assembly, and as deplored by the Commission on Human Rights and the General Assembly resolutions, intolerance and discrimination based on religion and belief continue to manifest themselves all over the world. In order to combat these phenomena, the Special Rapporteur has been monitoring the situation in the field of religion and belief and, has been alerting states through communications and in-situ visits. In addition, the Special Rapporteur, as stipulated by the Commission on Human Rights and the General Assembly, has insisted on the fact that it is of utmost importance to reinforce these activities, hence improve the effectiveness of his mandate, through a preventive strategy.

The Special Rapporteur believes that prevention can be ensured mainly through the establishment of a culture of tolerance, notably through education, which could make a decisive contribution to the promotion of human rights values and particularly attitudes and behaviours which reflect tolerance and non-discrimination, hence, the role of schools.

In this connection, in 1994, the Special Rapporteur conducted a survey, by means of a questionnaire addressed to States, on the issue of freedom of religion and belief from the standpoint of the curricula and textbooks of primary (or elementary) and secondary educational institutions. The 77 State replies were used as a basis for a number of provisional comments, inter alia, intolerance as reflected in curricula and textbooks, ignorance of religions as such (including minority groups), as well as distorted description of them, leading to a lack of respect for them. The Special Rapporteur considered that the material collected could be further developed by taking into account other relevant State, regional and international experiences with a view to drawing a set of conclusions and recommendations to be submitted to a consultative international conference on the question of tolerance and non-discrimination in relation with freedom of religion and belief in primary (or elementary) and secondary educational institutions. The objective of such a conference being to assist the Special Rapporteur to shape an international educational strategy centered on the definition and implementation of a common minimum curriculum of tolerance and non-discrimination for combating all forms of intolerance and discrimination based on religion or belief. The outcome of the Conference would be reflected in the adoption of a Declaration to be submitted to the Commission on Human Rights and the General Assembly.

5. Limits of the survey and remedies:

While State replies to the questionnaire provided the Special Rapporteur with an indication of current policies implemented by Governments in the field of religious education, several limits were encountered in this exercise and need to be acknowledged:

- Firstly, not all Governments to which the questionnaire had been addressed have provided their input. Consequently, the replies received do not address all situations and can only be considered as a sample.

- Secondly, State replies were not always complete, did address only some questions and/or were not always very substantive.

On the other hand, 77 replies provide an extensive sample of trends. In addition, as a remedy to the above-mentioned limits, the Special Rapporteur made further research and included experiences from countries which did not reply to the questionnaire, with a view to making up for the lack of information and thus widening the spectrum of the analysis. Further insights on relevant contributions by international, regional and national and non-governmental organizations were also included in the survey.

Therefore, while the outcome of the present study appears somewhat circumscribed, it will nonetheless allow to identify some guidelines and trends in this field, including reference to relevant policies that have been adopted.

Owing to the lack of replies received from Africa, particular attention was given to some African experiments in developing education in the field of religion and conviction and creating sensitized and trained teachers, particularly in situations of conflicts. Nigeria has a long history of education provided by religious community. In addition, a process of teachers-training has been initiated since the mid-1960s. During the same period, in Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria and Uganda university departments of theology began to expand the teaching and study of Christianity to include Islam and "African Traditional Religions". Similar changes gave a more contextual base to the teaching of other subjects, as well. Some of the most innovative work in terms of cooperative curriculum development was undertaken in post-apartheid South Africa, particularly on educational research and proposals for new curricula aiming at advancing mutual understanding and respect while reducing prejudice, based on a multi-religious model which is current in Great Britain. More specifically, by promoting inter-group relations and avoiding ethno-centricity, religious education is being reconstructed for relevance to personal and social responsibility and participation in local, national and global societies. Further proposals include the development of careful teacher training, covering several religious traditions and methods of religious education. A successful example was represented by the June 1993 South African initiative for a "Dialogue between the cultures", which led to the formation - in Hamburg in 1994 - and consolidation - in Utrecht in 1996 - of an International Network for Interreligious and Inter-cultural Education. Other experiences reported refer to Zambia, with its inclusion of Zambian Humanism; Malawi, with its inclusion of Christianity, Islam and "African Traditional Religions"; Namibia with its problem-solving approach to religious and moral education; and Zimbabwe, where a multi-religious approach is designed to allow each student to better understand his/her own tradition.

As for Europe, in Great Britain a number of networks and centres of teacher education specialised on the needs for interreligious or multi-religious education, such as the Shap Working Party on World Religions in Education, founded in April 1969 and constituted by school teachers, lecturers in colleges and universities, as well as representatives of governmental and non- governmental bodies aiming at designing an appropriate religious education system for an increasingly pluralist country. Westhill College in the Selly Oak Colleges, Birmingham, England, together with the University of Birmingham, has also developed specialist courses for teachers of religious education, including those from minority communities. Publications have been issued and the contribution to a culture of tolerance made by teachers who had benefited from such training has been tested and appreciated for many years. The Religious and Education Research Unit at the University of Warwick, England, also contributes to inter-cultural understanding. In addition, the University of Warwick offers a Part-time Master of Arts in Religious Education by distance learning. The University of Erlangen-Nurnberg, Germany, has a specialist centre on inter-religious pedagogy.

As regards Asia, in Israel/Palestine, a number of innovative educational experiments have been undertaken, such as the "Neve Shalom Community", aiming at educating together Jewish, Muslim and Christian children; "Living together in the Holy Land: respecting differences" an educational programme for junior high-school children, jointly planned by the Center for Educational Technology in Tel Aviv and the Noor Information and Research Center in Ramallah, to expose students to each other's religions; a trilingual Hebrew, Arabic and English book "Shalom, Salam, Peace", published in 2000, aiming at facilitating a meditative approach to children and their families through scriptures, art, poetry and design. During the international forum on "Culture and Religion in Central Asia", held in Bishkek from 13-18 September 1999, organized by UNESCO and the Government of the Kyrgyz Republic to support the goals of the International Year of Culture of Peace (2000) and the Year of Dialogue among Civilizations (2001), a number of recommendations were put forward on children and youth education and religious tolerance, including multi-lingual policies, media projects, studies on human rights and religion, textbook development, networking between institutions and elaboration of principles for teaching interreligious dialogue. Other relevant experiences range from some conclusions and recommendations emerging from a Sub-Regional Training Workshop on Human Rights Education in Northeast Asia, held in Seoul from 1-4 December 1999; some movements in India, Indonesia, Japan, the Republic of Korea and Thailand, focussing on educational alternatives, including inter-religious understanding and cooperation, responding to needs for personal and communal transformation, inter-cultural enrichment and stimulus of tolerance.

Research was also conducted on private schools, which are often seen as providing the best
opportunities for a multi-confessional religious education as is the case for the World Colleges, initially developed in north America and Europe to expand recently in other continents.

Similarly, international organizations have often sponsored specialized programmes on multi- religious education, as was the case of a World Council of Churches' initiative in the late 1960s, aiming at highlighting the need for religious dialogue and education to prevent intolerance and promote peace and justice in pluralist communities. Similar initiatives followed in the 1980s, particularly in countries in conflict, such as the 1994 Conference of European Churches, bringing together representatives of Orthodox, Protestant, Catholic, Islamic and Jewish communities for a round-table on multicultural education, during the conflict in Yugoslavia. On that occasion, a recommendation for school teachers and for teachers of religion was put forward urging that both public and religious education should emphasize commitment for human rights and for a culture of tolerance. The recommendation also referred to the need for proper teacher training and appropriate materials. Similar events followed in the region, subsequently.

Among the potential sources of support for a strategy aiming at using education in religion and conviction as a preventive measure against intolerance and discrimination are the work emerging from the UN Decade for Human Rights Education and the World Conference Against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, to be held in South Africa from 31 August through 7 September 2001.

A number of UNESCO initiatives are also worth mentioning. The International Bureau of Education (IBE), has a mandate covering the whole range of educational disciplines. While no programmes or studies focussing on education in the field of religion and conviction have been initiated yet, IBE did issue an international survey in preparation for the 44th session of the International Conference on Education, which was held in Geneva in October 1994 on "Appraisal and Perspectives of Education for International Understanding". A further contribution is emerging from the Department of Inter-cultural Dialogue and Pluralism for a Culture of Peace, which has published a number of publications and brochures.

Other relevant references include the "Roads of Faith" Project, Rabat, 19-23 June 1995, proposing a revision of textbooks to eliminate clichés and irreverent allusions to other religions; the Declaration of Malta, 20-22 June 1997, referring to the need for confessional educational systems and syllabi to take into account other communities; the UNESCO Catalonia and Andalucía-sponsored seminar on "Religious education in the context of pluralism and tolerance"; the Declaration on the Teaching of Religion made in July 1994 by the UNESCO-associated schools in Catalonia, in which reference is made to a proposal for a syllabus containing inter alia a cross-cutting programme of religious culture; adopting a multi-religious approach within the current subject of Religion; teaching religions and convictions as part of the social sciences.

UNDP has been working on integrating human rights within sustainable development and several of its programmes at the country-level cooperate directly with religious communities. In 1999, a Survey of Activities in Human Rights was made, which refers to the "Indigenous Knowledge Programme" operative in five countries in Latin America and four countries in Asia, helping to sustain strategies promoting and protecting traditional knowledge among indigenous peoples. In some cases, cooperation between UNDP and religious bodies on the issue of freedom of religion and conviction is referred to.

As for NGOs, relevant examples include the networking of Project Tandem, active for over 15 years including in the establishment of the Oslo Coalition; the August 1998 Oslo Conference on Freedom of Religion or Belief, which addressed the theme "Accepting the challenge: Building a Coalition to Protect Universal Freedom of Religion or Belief" and issued a declaration which includes recommendations referring to art. 18 of the ICCPR and the 1981 Declaration as universal standards on freedom of religion or belief and as a way to solve problems of intolerance and discrimination caused by competing beliefs; The World Association for the School as an Instrument of Peace; networks of religious educators such as the South Africa-based International Network for Interreligious and Inter-cultural Education, which also includes north American and European members and the European Association of World Religions in Education, which are coming into being; and the International Organization for Development of Freedom of Education, which has upheld concerns relating to the right of access to education in the field of religion and belief, in order to avoid dangers of cultural vacuum and in order to support human rights.

6. Limitations defined by the Special Rapporteur vis-à-vis the survey

The Special Rapporteur has chosen the following approach, namely that the study's perspective be human rights-oriented and not theological in nature insofar as it focuses on whether and how religious education can contribute to the promotion and protection of human rights by contributing to the development of self-awareness in the full respect of other identities, tolerance and non- discrimination. The specificity of this study lies therefore in its focus on religious education and its contribution to the promotion and protection of human rights, a concern that the Special Rapporteur has put forward since 1993. Thus, information received was analyzed in this perspective. With this specificity, this study fits within a long-lasting debate reflecting a number of developments in the understanding of religious education. While traditionally religious education has often been conceived (and perceived) as mere proselytism, a number of initiatives, particularly by UNESCO, have been implemented to change this perspective. More recently, similar endeavors have been undertaken by Governments and other international organizations; the United Nations Decade for Human Rights Education falls within this framework.

7. Annexes

Three annexes have been enclosed to this study. The first one is the questionnaire itself, as submitted to States in 1994 by the Special Rapporteur.

The second one is an analysis of the replies received to the Special Rapporteur's questionnaire. It is comprised of a first factual part, sketching geographic, cultural and religious factors creating the framework which emerged from the replies received, and a more substantive part, focusing more specifically on concrete data and information provided in the replies themselves.

The third annex reflects the questions as they appeared in the questionnaire and provide some statistical elements which help complete the overall picture emerging from the previous annex.

The role of religious education in the pursuit of tolerance and non-discrimination

Study prepared under the guidance of Prof. Abdelfattah Amor,
Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights
on the question of religious intolerance

Comments to replies received from Governments.

7. Annexes

Three annexes have been enclosed to this study. The first one is the questionnaire itself, as submitted to States in 1994 by the Special Rapporteur.

The second one is an analysis of the replies received to the Special Rapporteur's questionnaire. It is comprised of a first factual part, sketching geographic, cultural and religious factors creating the framework which emerged from the replies received, and a more substantive part, focusing more specifically on concrete data and information provided in the replies themselves.

The third annex reflects the questions as they appeared in the questionnaire and provide some statistical elements which help complete the overall picture emerging from the previous annex.

The following paragraphs will provide an analysis of the issue of education in the field of religion and conviction as a preventive instrument in the promotion of a culture of tolerance and non- discrimination, hence, ultimately, to the promotion and protection of human rights. Such an analysis was conducted based on the results emerging from the replies received to the Special Rapporteur's questionnaire, as well as data drawn from other international, regional, national, governmental and intergovernmental experiences.

I. The Provision for Religious Education in State and/or Private Schools as a Means to Prevent Intolerance and Discrimination based on Religion or Belief

While constitutional prescriptions, cultural traditions and ideological principles relating to the provision of religious education vary significantly within countries, a common denominator emerged from the questionnaire in terms of the desire to prevent intolerance or discrimination based on religion or belief; freedom to express and practise one's religion or belief is an internationally recognized right which is widely echoed in constitutional and legal provisions, but exercising one's own rights comes with the corollary of respecting the rights of others.

1. Historical perspectives

Varying trends may reflected different historical paths. There are countries where a constitutional provision for "laicity", "secularity" has been foreseen, hence the separation of state and religion. This may be the result of revolutionary anti-clerical movements in society which criticized what some saw as abuses of religious authority including dogmatic approaches to education which restricted freedom of conscience; fears expressed by religious minorities that centralized political control of religious education would not cater for varieties of faith and belief in a pluralist society; perceptions that traditional forms of religious education would inhibit intellectual enquiry or social modernization. All these factors, while not necessarily anti-religious, might have developed the view by some religious people, that religious education should be taken out of the domain of state control and implemented both by religious institutions or by the family or the religious community in extra- curricular religious instruction.

On the other hand, religious communities, while often being the pioneers of primary and secondary (and sometimes of tertiary) education, eventually recognized that the state should take over provision of universal education, owing to the fact that the educational needs of the whole community went beyond the financial and professional capacities of the religious community and that they constituted a major political, social and fiscal responsibility for the state, including the responsibility to ensure free access to religious education. Hence, a constitutional or legal requirement for provision of religious education and for state support for religious institutions, including educational ones.

In many cases the hand-over from religious communities to state was less concerned with compensation for properties than with maintenance of the ethical and spiritual tradition of their schooling. In some cases state law accepted a continuing responsibility to provide religious education. In many other cases, however, the religious community preferred to keep possession of school properties and also to continue to guide the teaching policies, in agreement with the state; this has included measures whereby many religious schools attract state support financially as well as accepting state directives and inspections concerning curricula. It should not be assumed that confessionally organized religious education is inimical to the promotion of tolerance and inter- religious understanding.

Additionally, there are those ideologically inspired states which have taken over all education, including expropriating or closing religious schools, prohibiting religious education in state schools and, sometimes, severely inhibiting it in family or extra-curricular contexts. While the intention to create national unity by providing common schooling for all communities in a pluralist society may have been the leading criteria for such a policy, one of its results was to bequeath an almost total ignorance about religion, whether in a historical context or in an experiential way, which has created further distance among groups.

2. International Prescriptions related to Religious Education: Public School Instruction

The question whether religious education should be provided by the state or not has long been debated. In this connection, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in its article 18 requires States "to have respect for the liberty of parents and, when applicable, legal guardians to ensure the religious and moral education of their children in conformity with their own convictions". In addition, the Human Rights Committee clarified that "article 18 (4) permits public school instruction in subjects such as the general history of religions and ethics if it is given in a neutral and objective way".The Committee also noted that " public education that includes instruction in a particular religion or belief is inconsistent with article 18 (4) unless provision is made for non- discriminatory exemptions or alternatives that would accommodate the wishes of parents or guardians".

In the same vein, the Convention on the Rights of the Child reiterated much of the content of article 5 of the 1981 Declaration, on children's right of access to education in the matter of religion or belief. Article 14 of the Convention calls on states to respect the right of the child to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. States must respect the rights and duties of parents and guardians to guide the child in exercising these freedoms in a matter which corresponds to the child's capacities. The only permitted restrictions are where public safety, public order, health and morality are at issue or where the fundamental freedoms and rights of others are endangered. In addition, article 30 requires States to ensure that, where there are ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities, no child belonging to an indigenous or minority community be deprived of the right to his or her own cultural life, profession and practice of his or her own religion, and use of his or her own language.

International prescriptions about education in the field of religion and conviction highlight that the very purpose of that education and the conditions governing its practice are connected with principles of promoting tolerance and international understanding. Provision of religious education, provided it is neutral and objective, can make a real contribution to the prevention of intolerance and discrimination by helping pupils realize their own individual and communal cultural identity and provide ethical guidance.

3. Private School Instruction

It is widely believed that whenever religious education is provided by private schools, the same principles should apply. In this connection, the Special Rapporteur on the right to education, in her report to the 56th Session of the Commission on Human Rights (E/CN.4/2000/6), commented on the right of parents to offer appropriate private education to their children, even though the state may not provide sufficient financial support for this, hence the need for equitable treatment of all communities in respect of the optional provision of private education, including religious education.

II. The Content and Style of Education in the field of Religion and Conviction which can Enhance Tolerance

Along the same lines, educationists in the area of education in the field of religion and conviction have increasingly cautioned against inculcation and imposition of beliefs, whether religious or non-religious, while interpreting it as a process for the child to develop his/her own religious identity while learning and appreciating values different from his/her own, which contributes to make the child feel as part of a wider community.

1. Primary School Level

Owing to the variety of cultural contexts and educational facilities across the world, it would be difficult to propose a single syllabus. However, what matters most is for such a syllabus to incorporate criteria aiming at promoting tolerance and preventing discrimination.

At the primary school level, young children start experiencing the reality which surrounds them and begin to observe with curiosity the experiences of others. Such experiences can range from those of affection and estrangement in a family or community, to their apprehensions of the spiritual elements within themselves to the mysteries of nature around them; accordingly they recognize truth or meaning in myth or story, in symbol or ritual. The many different forms that these symbols take in terms of descriptions of the rites of human passage from birth to death and of the cycles of renewal and destruction in nature can provoke in young children a sense of curiosity about, and tolerance for, cultural pluralism.

2. Secondary School Level

Curiosity can be further stimulated by discussions encouraging descriptions of experiences and formulations of questions by the young people themselves, aiming at promoting a sense of personal identity and respect for the identity of others, while respecting the child's freedom of choice.

References in history, scriptures, oral tradition, communal or individual duties, art, music, worship or meditation, as well as concepts such as "God", "Nature", "Humanity", "Truth" or "Wisdom" change considerably according to cultural traditions. The lack of a common approach, however, can be turned into a positive element insofar as the recognition of diversity in human experience and expression is a fundamental starting point for promoting respect for human rights and responsibilities.

Most probably, as children realize the potentials for such discussions, and with the help of various media, verbal and non-verbal, it will be easier to stimulate their curiosity with a view to widening up their perspectives, both of the present day and throughout history, including by providing role models beyond those provided by the family, school or wider communities. A careful pedagogical interpretation of language and content according to the child's age which takes into account his/her culture is a further element to take into account.

3. Religious Education as a Tool to Sensitize to Human Rights Issues

Religious education is a contributing factor to the shaping up of one's identity and may play a key role in multi-cultural societies - and in the pursuit of a thorough globalization - as long as it promotes values of tolerance and non-discrimination. This implies that wider perspectives need to be offered, which besides contributing to self-awareness and developing one's own identity, also help in the understanding of other wider perspectives, thus responding to a logic of inclusion and feeling part of the same, global community. Teaching of religions and convictions based on these criteria would indeed favour the development of balanced individuals, aware of their own identity, including at the religious level, but also open, curious and respectful vis-à-vis different identities, thus contributing to the creation of a conducive environment for the promotion and protection of human rights.

III. The Relevance of Religious Education for the Development of a Sense of Respect for One's Own and for Others' Identity in terms of Religion or Belief

The need for a better mutual understanding is particularly acute as we move towards a global society characterized by multiple identities. Not only do many children come from mixed marriages, but they live in pluralist societies and they may have an increasing sense of belonging to a wider community. At the same time, each individual bears his/her own identity, which often include a religious component, which, in some cases provides individuals with their fundamental raison d'être.

When the 1981 Declaration on the Elimination of all Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination based on Religion or Belief was agreed, one of the main concerns was intolerance and discrimination directed against religious people or believers. The focus was more on the victim of intolerance and discrimination rather than on the cause of the violation. Twenty years later, with religions less often subjected to atheist repression and with the name of religion invoked in far too many conflicts, questions are increasingly raised about mistaken religious beliefs and even misguided religious believers being "part of the problem". These considerations may well contribute to the debate on the role of religious education, for it to become "part of the solution".

The right to cultural and religious identity was sanctioned in international instruments together with the right of access to education about one's own culture, religion or conviction provided that the exercise of this right is not to the detriment of the analogous right for others. In other words, if religion or belief are constituent elements in a sense of identity, it is important to make sure that they allow respect of others and are not exclusive in the sense of rejecting others.

Education in the field of religion and conviction is but one out of many, complementary formal contexts in which the above-mentioned rights can be explored thus contributing to the shaping of a creative preventive strategy against intolerance and discrimination. The teaching of history, philosophy, or civics provide further opportunities for this exercise, provided this teaching is based on a wide perspective aiming at using cultural differences as elements enriching the community.

It is demonstrated that already at primary school age children are aware of differences around them, particularly nowadays, as they are increasingly exposed to multi-culturalism. What matters is for them to understand that different backgrounds need not be a reason for separation or competition but rather a challenge to demonstrating the enrichment of society through the variety of different contributions.

Including elements of dialogue and mutual understanding by providing references to other world-views, religions and convictions in the teaching of religion and conviction has long been debated since some believe that it may lead to relativism insofar as all religions and convictions would be seen as the same. Aside from the fact that adherence to a religion or conviction is a subjective decision which reflects the individual's freedom of choice which may well benefit from a wider exposure, sight should not be lost of the human rights perspective.

Accordingly, the main question is to ensure that teaching of religion and conviction is undertaken in an open and enquiring way, permitting question, response and free choice by the pupil, for it to contribute to a real "Culture of Tolerance", as also advocated by UNESCO in recent years. In other words, education in the field of religion and conviction can contribute to the elimination of all forms of intolerance and discrimination based on religion or belief provided that both its contents and the spirit in which they are transmitted put emphasis on comparative experiences, encouraging the dialogue, hence developing each person's identity in a wider, richer context, characterized by different identities, backgrounds and perspectives, all equally stimulating.

It goes without saying that comparative experiences should be presented in a fair and balanced way, focusing on similarities, common ground and common concerns raised by the different religions and convictions and turning dissimilarities into key-strengths on which to base a tolerant and non-discriminatory society.

This obvious consideration leads to the following step, namely how to represent the other in such a fair way or, in other words, so that s/he can recognize him/herself. To this end, it may be worth considering that however much a teacher seeks to be fair and objective about another culture or system of belief, nothing can replace primary source materials which can speak for themselves, together with interpretation, written or artistic, coming from those who are adherents and exponents of their own tradition. Invitations for visiting teachers who can describe their own faith or belief are one way to promote fairness. Textbook about a religion or belief system written by adherents of another faith can provide objective overviews, particularly if adherents of the faith itself have been consulted in the research and drafting process to see if they can recognize themselves in what is written.

Answers to the questionnaire reveal a fairly widespread practice for textbooks to be viewed and approved by religious communities or by agreed syllabus committees made up of teachers, parents and religious leaders. Such discussions are likely to decrease the chance of a misunderstanding or offence in the classroom.

In this connection, it is worth referring to the role of multi-cultural and inter-cultural education as a means to reconcile different cultures and world-views and implement the concepts linked to a positive self-representation and an equally positive representation of the others. Multi-cultural education includes educational policies and practices aiming at responding to the different educational needs as expressed by different cultural traditions. On the other hand, inter-cultural education defines educational policies and practices aiming at teaching individuals to live together, to know each other, their specific cultural and historical characteristics, with a view to favouring their integration based on values of tolerance and pluralism.

Accordingly, a number of minimum requirements should be taken into account to favour such an approach, namely the teaching of two or more languages; teaching of subjects such as history, cultures, languages, religions and convictions of both majority and minority groups, aiming at developing a better understanding of the others and their specificities; designing integrated school curricula; fostering intercultural dialogue, particularly in school; and fighting all those trends stemming from xenophobia, discrimination and intolerance. It goes without saying that the role of teachers and educators in this respect is crucial.

A further controversial issue is the one arising when atheists are expected to describe religious traditions or, conversely, when religiously committed teachers are expected to treat non-religious world-views. Again, the main focus being human rights, what is relevant is that education on religious trends, traditions and movements as well as convictions, be provided in a fair and objective way, stimulating the curiosity of the audience, encouraging it to question their bias and stereotypes about cultures, religions and views other than the one which they see as being part of their own identity. Succeeding in portraying the others so that they can recognize themselves provides not only a valuable and inspiring educational experience; it also help create understanding and mutual respect between different communities or world-views. This criteria being the modality to teach, the personal beliefs or convictions of the teacher remain confined to his/her own subjectivity and are not relevant within the framework of the current debate.

A particular aspect to be taken into account is the perspective of girls and women with respect to education in the field of religion and conviction, deriving from the fact that, in some countries, girls still do not have the same possibilities of access to education as do boys. The statistics appearing in the UNICEF's "State of the World's Children" reports show some slight improvements across the 1990s: half the pupils in most countries and in most schools are girls, and women often outnumber men as teachers. Even within religious communities where men have much hierarchical authority, women exercise great influence as teachers.

Also, the teaching and story-telling role and the traditional practices of the grandmother, mother and sisters at home often provides the first firm foundation to ensure that women's perspectives in education in the field of religion and conviction are not lacking and that religious and cultural heritage can draw on experiences and role-models of both women and men, hence the importance to adequately reflect this double, complementary contribution and avoid gender-based "separation of tasks" in the provision of education in the field of religion and conviction.

Interpretations or misinterpretations which appear to discriminate against women may provide a good pedagogic opportunity to challenge given notions, biases and stereotypes, including by resorting to comparative examples, which would enrich the interpretative exercise.

One of the major challenges of advocating a diversified approach to religious education, including enlargement it beyond the mono-confessional to the multi-religious context, is the possibility to avail oneself of knowledgeable and skilled teachers. Accordingly the importance of teacher-training and in-service training as well as of improving teacher-training facilities and opportunities. Many answers to the questionnaire and some examples drawn from other situations underlined the need for improved teacher-training.

Good textbooks are also much needed and should be developed both within each cultural and national context, as well as based on international publications, such as those issued in the context of the work undertaken by the United Nations on education. Such reference materials could be usefully adapted to cover the still under-developed field of multi-religious education, with a view to linking it to the promotion of understanding and tolerance and to the elimination of all forms of intolerance and discrimination.

While many countries keep resorting to mono-confessional materials, a number of proven experiments in syllabus and textbook production should be acknowledged, which celebrate the variety of religious traditions and open pupils' minds beyond the history of their own religion to the history of world religions and cultures. This can also provide an opportunity to emphasize common, global factors and turn distinctive differences into positive, constructive elements, contributing to the prevention of prejudices.

Further elements to be taken into account are whether excluding education in the field of religion and conviction from the syllabus is likely to create a legacy of ignorance which does not go along the lines of providing a wider exposure to different culture which is at the basis of tolerance and non-discrimination. On the other hand, whenever education in the field of religion and conviction is part of the curriculum in state and/or private schools, provisions should be envisaged for it to be optional, at least in terms of allowing for a conscientious right of withdrawal to be exercised by the parents, guardians or mature pupils. Or else, alternative syllabi should be foreseen offering education in another religion(s), particularly in multi-cultural contexts, hence the need to use or develop audio-visual and correspondence courses so that pupils without access to education in the field of religion and conviction in a particular tradition are not deprived of this.

There seemed little evidence in the answers to the questionnaire of there still being a fear that education in the field of religion and conviction can be used for purposes of propaganda. Not only is such use deplored by many religious communities but legislation already exists in some places where this danger was once felt. The groups which feel most vulnerable are usually minorities, notably those of indigenous peoples whose cultures have been so often marginalized and who may not have written histories or scriptures which could be included in teaching syllabi. Some of the gravest abuses of compulsory mainstream education for migratory peoples or for peoples resident in "reserves" have been addressed and, at times, redressed, but more subtle forms of "cultural genocide"may still exist, hence the need for a concerted effort to recuperate indigenous wisdom and practices for inclusion in teaching materials and methods.

Together with propaganda, extremism is also to be prevented. Religious institutions, including educational ones, have a big responsibility in achieving this goal, by preventing discriminatory and selective treatment, which have been so roundly condemned in some secular, ideologically regulated institutions or educational systems, and which at times have been resorted to.

In conclusion, based on all the elements raised so far, it appears confirmed that in order to ensure a proper education in the field of religion and conviction, this should find its place within an inter-disciplinary spectrum based on a vision setting high priorities on the values of tolerance and non-discrimination. Such values presuppose knowledge of, and respect for, cultures, world-views, religions and convictions other than one's own. All knowledge, all enquiry, all critique can be welcomed if they contribute to sustaining the values of peace, tolerance and non-discrimination. The many initiatives that are being taken to introduce the teaching of history of religion, comparative study of religion and the art of dialogue between religions and cultures are to be welcomed.

Comments to replies received from Governments.

 

Annex 1

Questionnaire addressed to Governments and relating to freedom of religion and belief in primary and secondary schools

Question 1:
Is there a constitutional or legislative definition in your country of the foundations of religious instruction? If so, how is it worded?

Question 2:
How many religious primary and secondary schools are there? For what percentage of all primary and secondary schools do they account?

Question 3:
For how many years is religious instruction guaranteed in primary and secondary schools?

Question 4:
Is religious instruction compulsory or optional in primary and secondary schools?

Question 5:
Does religious instruction cover one religion or more than one? Which one (or ones)? Where religious instruction does cover more than one religion, on what basis is instruction relating specifically to each religion divided up?

Question 6:
How many hours of religious instruction are given per week in the last year of primary school and in the last year of secondary school?

Question 7:
Do the results of religious education count - and for how much - in the overall results of the last year of primary school and of secondary school?

Question 8:
In primary and/or secondary schools, are students separated on the basis of difference of religion or belief or of difference of sex?

Question 9:
What authorities and bodies take part in drawing up primary and secondary school curricula and, in particular, religious instruction curricula?

Question 10:
What rules govern the preparation of school textbooks and, in particular, religious textbooks at the primary and secondary school levels?

Question 11:
Are religious questions dealt with in specific curricula and textbooks or covered in curricula and textbooks generally?

Question 12:
How much quantitative importance is attached to the study of religions other than the majority religion?

Question 13:
Do school curricula and textbooks deal with freedom of religion and belief, including freedom of non-belief?

Question 14:
Do school textbooks and curricula include an introduction to the practice of religion? How much time on average is spent on this introduction per week? Does it take place in the school or outside? Under whose guidance? Is it compulsory or optional? Is it based on the majority religion or does it take account of different religious affiliations?

Question 15:
Do school curricula and textbooks refer to questions relating to the elimination of all forms of intolerance and of discrimination based on religion or belief?

Question 16:
How are persons who give religious instruction trained and recruited?

Question 17:
Are there measures in your country to prevent religious instruction from being converted into political or religious indoctrination?

Question 18:
What educational measures, according to your country, might help to promote understanding, tolerance and respect in the matter of religion and belief and to combat hatred, intolerance and acts of violence, including those motivated by religious extremism?

Question 19:
What common values and principles in relation to freedom of religion and belief should, according to your country, be taught in school curricula and textbooks?


Annex 2

Primary analysis of the replies to the questionnaire of the survey

1. Factual analysis

Responses to the questionnaire were received from 77 states, 7 of which provided no direct answers to the questionnaire and 5 of which provided only partial answers. Of the remaining 65 responses, 20 were given with some detail and with supporting documents. Most responses were provided succinctly through foreign ministries, although in some cases the help of ministries of education and of religious bodies was acknowledged.

The geographical spread of responses received is fairly representational insofar as it reflects all world regions as well as a number of religious trends. More specifically, replies were received from the following countries: Algeria, Andorra, Armenia, Austria, Bahrain, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Chile, China, Columbia, Cote d'Ivoire, Croatia, Cuba, Cyprus, Denmark, Djibouti, Ecuador, Egypt, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, France, Germany, Guatemala, Holy See, Honduras, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Israel, Italy, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lesotho, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Mali, Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Mexico, Morocco, Namibia, Nauru, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Niger, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Paraguay, the Philippines, Portugal, the Republic of Korea, Romania, Saint Lucia, San Marino, Senegal, Singapore, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden Switzerland, Thailand, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Tunisia, Turkey, Uganda, Ukraine the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland the United States of America, Uruguay, Venezuela, Vietnam, Zambia.

Religious and cultural factors have been given a specific attention in this study. Replies to the questionnaire came from 52 countries which are predominantly Christian (31 Roman Catholic, 14 Protestant and 7 Orthodox); 17 which are predominantly Islamic; 5 which are predominantly Buddhist, non-theist or atheist; 2 which are predominantly Hindu; and 1 which is predominantly Jewish. Information gaps on a specific religious group or conviction do not reflect by any means a selective approach. They are simply due to lack of data received. Also, it was not possible to take into account estimated figures for levels of humanist belief or for allegiance to "indigenous/primal religion"; however, particular attention has been paid to the special needs and concerns of these categories. Overall, the questionnaire reflects a diversity of practice and opinion and considerable cultural diversity, particularly in terms of minority groups.

Differences in responses to each of the 19 questions often lie within regions and within religions. Accordingly, one of the values of the questionnaire is already apparent in confirming that there is a world-wide relevance for the questions which were posed and that there is indeed a fully world-wide concern shared by peoples of all religions and cultures to find solutions in terms of preventive measures against intolerance.

The survey also focused on the relevance of religious education to the prevention of intolerance and discrimination. Among the 77 countries, 37 are confessionally and religiously pluralist; 30, which have very few religious minorities may, nevertheless, have considerable confessional diversity within the majority religion, 10 tend to be confessionally and religiously homogeneous.

Owing to prevailing assumptions that certain religions are more likely than others to nurture conflict, replies were analyzed from both countries experiencing conflicts and tensions, and relatively calm countries. It appeared that no religious group is disproportionately involved in conflicts and violations or in situations of tension.

While these data provide a useful background, the main purpose of the questionnaire was to stimulate discussion about the potential preventive value of religious education in promoting the elimination of all forms of intolerance and discrimination based on religion and belief. Accordingly the various questions will be analyzed primarily with a view to addressing this major concern of the questionnaire.


B. Substantive analysis

While there is no common pattern for the availability of religious education in primary and secondary schools, most governments are satisfied that existing constitutional, legal and administrative practices allow for the enjoyment of internationally recognized and religiously sanctioned freedom of conscience. Legislation, where it exists, is often in terms of safeguarding freedom of religious expression and prevention of intolerance or discrimination; and determining consultative relationships and financial obligations between governments and religions, including in those countries where it was felt that the division between state and religion required religious education to be outside the state school system. There is also a widespread concern about manifestations of religious intolerance. Ignorance and lack of proper understanding about one's own and one's neighbours' religion is seen as undermining ethical commitment to human rights. In fact, in some states where ideological atheism had prohibited religious instruction in state schools, there was a provision in terms of universally accepted freedom of religion and belief to allow religious communities to arrange their own spiritual instruction and theological training.

Some cases were reported whereby confessional identity and some confessional control of schools can continue even after they enter the state system. This is mainly due to some religious communities' active role in initiating primary and secondary schooling in many countries. Reference was made to cases whereby religious schools are desired by parents because of a secular ethos in state schools. Some replies also referred to specialized schools such as "seminaries" or "madrasehs", which prepare young people for eventual leadership in religious communities. However, even when State subsidies are available, the percentage of religious schools is usually very low, which may not necessarily affect their influence within religious communities and societies. Also, some religious schools are in the forefront of pedagogical reforms in religious and human rights education.

Replies confirm that religious education remains a prevalent subject across both primary and secondary schooling. However, answers to subsequent questions fail to clarify whether the quality and content of religious education is indeed conducive to a culture of tolerance. In this connection, reference was made to the need for improved training of the teachers of religious education, in order to strengthen the credibility for that subject.

Answers did not address the rare but contentious situations where children may wish to exercise choices against the will or without the knowledge of parents. Continuing debates illustrate the difficulty of this subject, particularly, as answers to the questionnaire revealed, where traditions of compulsory religious education are still prevalent. However it would seem that the ultimate freedom of choice is that of the child, with parental support and guidance.

Countries which are committed to multi-religious education claim that it promotes understanding and respect for human rights, not least when the various religions themselves are seen to be teaching such values and ideals. Teaching about religions other than that of the majority takes place in half of the countries answering the questionnaire as a whole. It may be assumed that the countries which did not answer this question should be classified with those which said that no such teaching takes place as yet. While it was difficult to determine its quantitative importance, a significant number of answers indicated that a substantial amount of time was given to comparative study of religions. In some cases, a world-wide perspective has already been well established. At any rate, the availability of multi-religious education appeared rather limited in general, and rare in predominantly Catholic and Muslim countries, and many answers only addressed the concept of separate classes or schools for the adherents of minority religions to be instructed in their own religion.

Religious education is usually a basic part of the curriculum, although it rarely affects passing grades, even when it is a compulsory subject as in the case of many Catholic countries. Apart from specialized religious schools, which envisage a twice daily lesson on religious studies, most of the answers refer to two hours or less per week. Where it is an examination subject, there is a full timetable available to the end of schooling. The sometimes decreasing amount of time given to religious education during a child's school life is partly explained in answers by lack of specialist teachers and by increasing specialization in secondary schooling.

Separation/segregation on the basis of religion or gender is most common within religious schools, with or without state subsidy. However, the insistence on gender separation may be seen as a cultural phenomenon rather than a religious requirement.Gender separation in private schools may be justified by the educational needs of certain children or the preferences of their parents. Separation on religious grounds within the same school is almost always in the context of religious education and the provision therein of parallel courses in the students' respective religions.

Various countries referred to strenuous efforts being made to find pedagogical approaches and educational materials to help fulfil the potential of religious education as a means to promote tolerance and eliminate discrimination based on religion or belief. The wide variety of practices reflected in answers to this question tends to confirm a pattern where co-operation between governmental, educational and religious authorities is the best way to create a climate of trust and ensure a proper combination of pedagogical and ethical perspectives. It appears that countries which have some of the greatest experience in creating "agreed syllabi" on the basis of such co-operative discussion and planning have become "models" to other countries for the excellence of their school materials as well as having made of religious education a vital influence for good community relations and enhanced human rights promotion at home. Cases whereby curricula are solely determined by religious authorities are comparatively few and usually in the context of confessional schooling for a religiously uniform society. Resulting teaching materials are not necessarily discriminatory, owing to the efforts of some highly competent pedagogical professionals committed to truthfulness and tolerance. Some countries report a new method of inter-confessional partnership in designing and teaching religious syllabi.

On the other hand, some experienced emerged whereby little encouragement has been given to address the need to review and, if necessary, to reform or revive religious education. Some answers referred to the need for school textbooks and curricula to address forms of discrimination other than the one based on religion and belief, such as that based on race or gender. The issue of how far religious teachings, possibly misunderstood or misapplied, may have acted against equality of status and opportunity for women was raised in several answers.

With respect to the preparation of religious textbooks, it appeared that a number of criteria have been taken into account, such as tolerance, ecumenical spirit, sensitivity to the feelings of minorities, etc., which reflect repeated requests in previous inter-religious conferences in terms of needs for commissioning textbooks which highlight religions' support for human rights, their vital contributions to global ethics and their cultivation of a culture of tolerance. However, a number of answers referred to the paucity of good textbooks, hence the need to depend on imported materials.

In this connection, it emerged that while half of the answers deal with religious questions in specific curricula, the other half covers them within the teaching of other subjects, in a more generic fashion.

Freedom of religion and belief, including freedom of non-belief, does not appear to be specifically envisaged in school curricula and textbooks. In fact, most countries assumed that such teaching automatically derived from the acceptance of international standards. Little evidence was provided of how or when such teaching was introduced, for example whether in the framework of religious education or human rights education. Also, while confirming that their textbooks and curricula specifically envisage freedom of religion and belief, some countries pointed out that issues of intolerance are often not addressed. However, the increasing number of political conflicts where religion has been perceived to be a factor in violent conflict, may mean that issues of religious intolerance will feature increasingly in history and political science or philosophy lessons.

As for the issue of freedom of non-belief, this seems to be either evaded or rejected in most countries. Few replies explicitly stated that non-belief is a right and only one country pointed to where this was taught in the curriculum, while several stated that it was not a right and was not taught.

Instruction in the practice of worship seems to be generally regarded as a task for the home or the religious community, although there are cases of non-confessional worship in state schools and confessional worship is normal in religious schools. Countries which include the practice of religion in the school curriculum often expect back-up from home and places of worship. Visits outside the school are sometimes arranged for students to observe religious celebrations or practices in local places of worship. Such visits are easy to arrange in increasingly pluralist societies and appear to be valuable in terms of overcoming xenophobia and increasing awareness of the importance of respect and tolerance for cultural and religious differences.

Many governments see the importance of strengthening respect for human rights. Replies received sometimes reveal a somewhat self-critical vein in recognizing that more could be done to this end. In particular a concern emerges that existing textbooks, current levels of teacher training and in-service preparation of teachers as well as teacher-training facilities are often inadequate. As for teachers and educators and the way they are recruited and trained, while government training and accreditation are available in most countries, notably in countries with Protestant and Muslim majorities, there is considerable dependence on religions to train teachers, notably in Catholic majority countries, where the local bishop is expected to give approval to all teachers of religious education. Several countries have resorted to volunteers whether for teaching of religious education in the classroom or outside school premises. Considerable emphasis was given, in some of the more detailed answers, to the professional integrity of teachers, as well as the wisdom and common sense of the children themselves.

Many countries confirmed that measures have been put in place to prevent religious instruction from being converted into political or religious indoctrination, although few provided relevant details, nor differentiated between political and religious. Some formerly atheist countries impose sanctions upon teachers perpetrating indoctrination, but it is not clear whether this is to be seen as a continuation of laws which once restricted or forbade religious teaching or rather as an endeavour to contrast all forms of political and religious indoctrination. Replies received tend to reveal a general optimism that legislation and changing attitudes will safeguard against indoctrination. Also, many references were made to the importance of values of tolerance and the need to avoid all forms of discrimination, although it is not always evident that the necessary reforms and reordering of priorities are being undertaken.

In fact, answers received range from a stance whereby no further measures are considered necessary to enhance tolerance, to a more self-critical standpoint deeming that education should be strengthened, including in the field of religion and belief. In this connection, many replies referred to the interdisciplinary principle in order to address religious and ethical issues in other disciplines, which accommodates both countries which foresee religious education and, partly, countries which forbid or do not actively encourage religious teaching as such.

In conclusion, the frequent invocations of tolerance and respect for differences, dialogue and freedom of conscience, argue that many countries would indeed favour a multi-religious approach to education. Religious education is seen in many replies as having great potential to harness the positive teachings of religions and motivate people for a tolerant and non- discriminatory society and a clear expectation emerges from most responses that religious education, rising to new challenges, can provide an important element within a preventive strategy aiming at challenging intolerance and discrimination.

* * * * *
Annex 3

Question 1: Is there a constitutional or legislative definition in your country of the foundations of religious instruction? If so, how is it worded?

70 countries replied to this question: 46 considered that there were explicit constitutional or legislative references to or definitions for religious education, 10 of which gave details of elaborate legal provisions; 14 considered that the prescription of "laicity" precluded state involvement in defining religious education, even though there might have to be a certain regulating of the activities of religious institutions; 10 considered that there were "no" definitions available. While a significant majority of countries have prescriptions for religious education, one fifth prohibit or restrict it.

Question 2: How many religious primary and secondary schools are there? For what percentage of all primary and secondary schools do they account?

60 responses, at times imprecise, were received to this question. The highest percentages for religious schools were 85% of both primary and secondary sectors, and 66% of the secondary sector. One country offered state subsidies to 60% of primary and 62% of secondary schools with religious identities. A country reported 57% of schools as being "confessional".

Other high percentages were reported, reflecting up to 40 and 30%: one country reported 32% in the primary sector and 23% in the secondary; another one reported 28% in the secondary sector as being run by religious bodies; a further case featured 35% in the primary and 21% in the secondary sectors as confessional or private schools; another reported 33% of secondary schools as being private, mainly confessionally identified, institutions.

Apart from these 10 countries with over 25% of education in religious or private hands, there were 9 countries with between 15% and 25% of all schooling in private (mostly religious) institutions. There was 1 country with about 20% of primary schooling in private, partly religious, institutions.

There were 8 responses with from 5% to less than 15% in private, mainly religious, schools in the secondary sector. Of those countries with relatively high percentages of secondary level students in the private sector, 6 countries also had from 5% to 10% in the primary sector.

Some 12 countries claimed less than 5% in both sectors, 3 of them claiming under 5% in the primary sector but more in the secondary and 1 with a 20% level of religious schooling in the primary sector which claimed only 1% in the secondary sector.

7 countries claimed "a few" religious schools; 7 countries gave no numerical indications but implied that there were very few religious schools; 6 countries stated that there were no religious schools.

Only a very few countries have a majority of primary and secondary schools under private or confessional control; conversely very few countries say that there are no religious schools. Most countries have less than a quarter of schools in private or confessional hands.

Question 3: For how many years is religious instruction guaranteed in primary and secondary schools?

There were 68 responses to this question. 35 countries indicated that state schools provide religious education throughout primary and secondary school, in several cases depending on the availability of teachers or upon demand by pupils.

In 8 countries teaching might not go beyond the first two years of secondary education, and in one case it might not begin until the fourth year of primary education. Several countries were in the experimental stage of introducing religious education into state schools, aiming for all age ranges.

In 11 countries no religious education is offered in state schools, while 6 countries offer "optional" classes. One country provides "life guidance" classes; 3 countries offer "factual and cultural" lessons.

While over 50% of the countries have religious education through all school years, a significant minority reduce hours in secondary schooling, and some provide no religious education (although it is sometimes available as an option)

Question 4: Is religious instruction compulsory or optional in primary and secondary schools?

There were 67 responses. Nine mentioned "compulsory"; in two countries religious education is/will be compulsory at primary level; in two it is compulsory only for Muslims; in two, teaching of the theory, but not the practice, of Islam is required; one allows parents or pupils to opt out of religious education, but this is allowed only at secondary level; one requires religious education only for Muslims; two require religious education at the primary level and one only in the middle years of schooling; in 10, religious education is regarded as compulsory subject but there is a right for parents or students who have reached an average of 14 years of age to opt out.

In 31 countries all religious education is optional.

In one country which required teaching of atheism in state schools, such teaching was not required in authorized religiously sponsored schools. In 6 countries, religious education is compulsory in private schools. However, in most other cases, private schools make religious education available but optional. In very few countries is religious education compulsory; the usual pattern is to opt for or opt out of religious education.

Question 5: Does religious instruction cover one religion or more than one? Which one (or ones)? Where religious instruction does cover more than one religion, on what basis is instruction relating specifically to each religion divided up?

62 countries only answered to this question, which in some cases was misunderstood. Many assumed that it referred simply to more than one religion being taught separately and confessionally. Replies from 29 countries recognized an existing practice of, or some experimentation with, a multi-religious approach emphasizing factual knowledge and tolerance of different religions and cultures.

9 answers referred to religious education on a strictly confessional basis; one stated that "there is no interest in the religions of others"; another conceded that Islamic principles require that other religions be "evoked". In 34 countries, confessional education is the norm in state and/or private schools and no reference is made to history or comparative study of world religions.

While nearly half of the responding countries have introduced some multi-religious education, many countries continue with confessional religious education and a few resist or object to multi-religious approaches.

Question 6: How many hours of religious instruction are given per week in the last year of primary school and in the last year of secondary school?

There were 60 replies. In five countries between 5 and 10 hours are spent on religious education in religious schools at both levels; in seven between 2 and 4 hours are spent at both levels, usually more at the primary level; in sixteen, 2 hours are provided at both levels; in seventeen, 1 or 1 and a half hour per week are given to religious education at both levels.

In one country, 6 hours are spent on religious education at primary level; several countries decrease from 2-3 hours at primary level to 1 hour at secondary level, others increase from 1 to 2 hours, particularly where religious education becomes an examination subject in the last year of secondary education. Variable or flexible timetables were reported from 3 countries, especially if the options offered in religious education required elaborate examination courses.

Most countries provide 1-2 hours of religious education, but one fifth provide considerably more.

Question 7: Do the results of religious education count - and for how much - in the overall results of the last year of primary school and of secondary school?

There were 60 responses to this question although only a few quantified the effect on final results, if applicable. In 26 countries (only one of which referring to private schooling), there could be an effect on final passing grades, although this applied in 2 countries only at the secondary level. In three further countries, grading was important in Islamic schools where 10% to 15% of the final grade could be for religious studies; one Islamic country quoted 7% of final marks for religious studies and another predominantly Islamic country a pass in studies of one's own religion was compulsory for graduation.

30 countries declared that religious studies do not affect final passing grades; four specified that this was the case at the primary level but religious studies could be an optional examination subject at the secondary level. In one country performance in religious studies was not considered in deciding eligibility for university entrance or for financial support.

Practice is almost equally divided between countries in which religious education affects school grades and others in which this is not the case.

Question 8: In primary and/or secondary schools, are students separated on the basis of difference of religion or belief or of difference of sex?

There were 67 responses: many of them made no difference between religion and gender and denied any separation on either grounds; seven mentioned separate confessional schooling according to religious identity, sometimes as a private option; ten referred to separation into confessional classes only for religious education lessons.

Three countries pursued gender separation; in three this was available in private schools only; one country noted that mixed schooling took place "in perfect harmony"; four mentioned private single-sex schools; three mentioned gender separated physical education classes.

Very few countries appeared to practise separation on basis of religion or gender although separate classes are more common than separate schools.

Question 9: What authorities and bodies take part in drawing up primary and secondary school curricula and, in particular, religious instruction curricula?

There were 63 replies. Nineteen countries referred to the authority of the national ministry of education for all education (including religious education); in twenty-four, in the case of religious education the national ministry consulted religious authorities; in two, local or regional educational authorities took decisions and in two, this was the case of religious education only.

In six countries, religious education was determined by religious authorities alone, possibly in accordance with the comment from the Holy See to this question that "Catholic religious formation is subject to the authority of the Church (i.e. local Bishops)".

In seven countries, specialists and teachers were responsible for religious education curricula; in one "Religious Instruction Advisory Centres" were set up in co-operation between government, teachers and religious bodies; in one, religious education was decided at the local level based on co-operation between officials and religious bodies; in one, local "Agreed Syllabuses" were decided by local government, religious bodies and teachers; in one, local school boards determined curricula which might include factual information, but no doctrine or practice, related to religions.

Governments take full charge in less than one third of countries but consult religions in over one third of countries; elsewhere local authorities, teachers or religions take charge of the preparation and implementation of curricula for religious education.

Question 10: What rules govern the preparation of school textbooks and, in particular, religious textbooks at the primary and secondary school levels?

There were 59 replies. The control of textbooks by the national ministry of education was mentioned in fourteen countries and by the local educational authorities in three; the need for approval by religious authorities was mentioned in ten countries; the advice of "specialists" and "educationalists" was mentioned in eleven. Some further answers commented only on the need to import books. Other replies simply referred to "no rules".

Twelve countries replied in a more general way indicating criteria for textbook choice; one reply referred to "the needs of plural society"; others to national values and that "truth be respected and the truth of religion implied"; others that "one's own belief be strengthened and the belief of others respected", and that "there should be no bias and no feelings should be hurt". Further countries brought forward criteria such as "promotion of ecumenicity, solidarity, love and mutual help" or "promotion of unity and freedom". One response highlighted "principles of equity and consensus, inclusive language, and sensitivity to gender and race differences"; one called for "religion's role in history, social sciences, philosophy and ethics [to] be examined"; and another one that "educational principles and methods [to] be observed in religious education", and that "there should be clarity and completeness".

Governments are involved in textbook choice in nearly half of responding countries; elsewhere educational specialists decide or other criteria apply.

Question 11: Are religious questions dealt with in specific curricula and textbooks or covered in curricula and textbooks generally?

There were 58 answers to this question, at times brief and not fully pertinent. The majority of countries have specific classes for religious studies but both in those countries and in those that have no separate religious studies, there is widespread attention to religious issues in other disciplines. In twenty-six countries religious issues were stated as being confined to religious studies; in thirteen, issues were taken up more generally in history, social studies, philosophy, ethics, sex education, etc.; in sixteen, religious issues are taken up in both religious and general studies. Two replies were vague: one said that nothing was prescribed in the curriculum and the other one that the principle of tolerance provided guidance.

Question 12: How much quantitative importance is attached to the study of religions other than the majority religion?

Forty-four countries answered this question, reflecting some of the earlier misunderstanding or possibly lack of interest in question 5. In the great majority of countries there is teaching about religions other than that of the national majority but nearly a quarter of responding countries teach only about the majority's religion. Ten replies referred to the lack of teaching other than that of the majority religion; one stated that it was not important in a "laic" country to study other religions. Thirty-four countries acknowledged the study of other religions but failed in giving a percentage of the time devoted to them, although some replies specified, in one case, 30%, and, in another, "a large amount". One answer specified 40% for "other religions", another "over 35% at secondary level", another 20% and another 10%. Two answers, from religiously pluralist countries, spoke of "equal treatment for all"; one referred to "history of religions and comparative study of religion in the last two grades of secondary schooling".

Question 13: Do school curricula and textbooks deal with freedom of religion and belief, including freedom of non-belief?

Sixty replies were received, seldom specific in terms of giving evidence of educational commitments or activities. Forty-six replies were content to invoke constitutional, educational or religious principles of tolerance as being implicit in their educational system.

Seven countries specifically pointed the need to protect freedom for non-belief, although only one mentioned a specific place in the primary curriculum to uphold the right to non-belief; one said that only freedom of belief could be promoted; one reply explicitly excluded freedom for non-belief describing it in one case as an "alien principle"; one sent a reply stating that there was no interest in this question "still less where it relates to unbelief" and one gave a negative answer.

Most replies say that issues of belief and non-belief are implicitly addressed but few countries report either explicit courses about non-religious belief; a very few countries reject discussion of non-religious belief.

Question 14: Do school textbooks and curricula include an introduction to the practice of religion? How much time on average is spent on this introduction per week? Does it take place in the school or outside? Under whose guidance? Is it compulsory or optional? Is it based on the majority religion or does it take account of different religious affiliations?

There were 56 responses, few of which addressed all the components of the question. It appeared, however, that nearly one third of responding countries include religious practice in religious classes: thirty-five of them simply stated "no"; others explained that religious practice might be demonstrated or observed for informational purposes, or that it occurred only in private schools, on special occasions, or in family or religious community. Of the eighteen countries in which the practice of religion was taught in school classes, one said that it was compulsory; eight specified that it was voluntary; one said that religious practice was taught only at the primary level; two reported a daily act of worship according to the religious composition of the class, a common practice in private religious schools all over the world.

Question 15: Do school curricula and textbooks refer to questions relating to the elimination of all forms of intolerance and of discrimination based on religion or belief?

The fifty-seven answers received provided few examples of content of curricula or textbooks, mostly based on the assumption that the sheer existence of a basic ethos of tolerance implied that schools must be teaching about it. Responding countries linked the issue of religious intolerance to national identity in a quarter of cases and to the basic purpose of religious education in a further quarter of cases. More specifically, of the fifty-one affirmative answers, fourteen said it was basic to their national identity to reject religious intolerance but gave no details of educational methods; eight said that the whole purpose of their religious curriculum was to promote tolerance; eight referred to human rights education, civics or moral education, classroom discussion, inter-cultural exposure, or history. Seven replies acknowledged that "nothing very specific" was being done, or that "more was needed"; six reported that there was no such teaching in their schools.

Question 16: How are persons who give religious instruction trained and recruited?

Fifty-seven replies were received from which it emerged that Governments provide facilities in a majority of cases but religions supplement this or provide separate facilities in a few cases. More in detail: thirty-seven countries claimed to provide state facilities for training teachers of religious education who are then appointed to state or private schools; religious communities may sometimes provide additional training and accreditation. One case emerged of a country which depended on teachers trained abroad and two which acknowledged that their existing training facilities were inadequate. In fifteen other countries schools depend on religious communities to provide, accredit and appoint religious teachers.

Question 17: Are there measures in your country to prevent religious instruction from being converted into political or religious indoctrination?

Fifty-seven answers were received, which revealed that in almost all countries laws or other safeguards were in place against indoctrination, mostly referring to a general legal or administrative ethos which prohibited or inhibited it. Some thirty countries referred to laws explicitly prohibiting indoctrination; seventeen cases rely on the teaching inspectorate and on trust in teachers being open-minded, respectful of both law and conscience and sensitive to differing cultural backgrounds: a case emerged of a country in which teachers may be punished for indoctrination by forfeiting from 10 to 20 monthly salaries. Four countries invoked parental choice as an adequate safeguard. Only seven countries admitted that there were no safeguards against indoctrination; one commented that it was difficult to avoid indoctrination in religious schools.

Question 18: What educational measures, according to your country, might help to promote understanding, tolerance and respect in the matter of religion and belief and to combat hatred, intolerance and acts of violence, including those motivated by religious extremism?

The sixty-three answers received were generally quite detailed although often expressed in somewhat abstract terms of values and attitudes to be promoted, particularly the triad of "understanding, tolerance and respect", which featured separately or as a whole in at least thirteen answers, or in terms of realizing "liberty, equality and non-discrimination", appearing in nine world-wide answers. Some replies referred to these as essential contributions of religious education but some added that there was room for improvement.

The teachings of values such as respect and tolerance was seen in at least six responses as giving the main answer, although another reply pointed out that there were no right or wrong answers as one sought to respect logic and reason even when one did not agree or accept another culture or point of view. Seven countries specifically referred to the role of religious education: one in terms of it having a "key role in engendering tolerance, respect for differences and in promoting the understanding and knowledge which provide a basis for such respect"; one urged development of history and comparative study of religions; one urged study of one's own faith and then that of others. Sixteen countries put forward a number of interdisciplinary suggestions, such as civic education, teaching of history and philosophy, international relations, human rights education, "education for a culture of peace", education for personal and social development, and education in global perspectives, in order to promote the elimination of intolerance and discrimination. One of the most detailed and thoughtful answers acknowledged the benefits deriving from mixed schooling, international openness in history and language teaching, religious education which differentiated between dogma and human interpretation, human rights education, the use of cultural activities like arts and sport and international youth exchanges. In five answers emphasis was put on the importance of teacher-training and on the role of the school. Seven said that nothing needed to be done to improve the present situation.

Question 19: What common values and principles in relation to freedom of religion and belief should, according to your country, be taught in school curricula and textbooks?

Fifty replies were received, many of them in abstract and succinct terms with the most frequent world-wide references, to the importance of a legal framework and a cultural climate of "tolerance and respect for differences" (some twenty-five times); many called for "dialogue and freedom of conscience" (some twelve times); one appealing for "solidarity, love, mutual help, kindness and forgiveness".Truthfulness, non-sexism and non-racism were also seen as necessary to stop stereotypes and caricatures; one reply referred to "the raising of the social level of women and the protecting of their rights"; others looked to strengthening education, be it in the field of human rights with special promotion of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, environmental responsibility, for democratic values, family integration and including for patriotism, all of which were seen as likely to create a conducive environment for the promotion of tolerance and respect for freedom of religion and belief. In this connection, some recommendations were also put forward for religious education to be a tool for students to respect and understand others' beliefs, and honour "divine principles, however culturally understood".